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When [[Ivan Illich]] wrote [[Tools for Conviviality]] in 1973, he was following on a long tradition of criticism of industrial technology and of proposal of alternatives. The [[Historical Roots]] of the idea of [[Convivial Tools]] extend at least as far back as the eighteenth century French Enlightenment and the philosophy of [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]. More recent precursors include twentieth-century figures such as [[Lewis Mumford]] and [[Jacques Ellul]]. And the [[Whole Earth]] and [[Appropriate Technology]] movements mentioned below, in fact appeared a few years ''before'' Illich wrote [[Tools for Conviviality]], and probably exercised significance influence on Illich's thinking.

When [[Ivan Illich]] wrote [[Tools for Conviviality]] in 1973, he was following on a long tradition of criticism of industrial technology and of proposal of alternatives. The [[Historical Roots]] of the idea of [[Convivial Tools]] extend at least as far back as the eighteenth century French Enlightenment and the philosophy of [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]. More recent precursors include twentieth-century figures such as [[Lewis Mumford]] and [[Jacques Ellul]]. And the [[Whole Earth]] and [[Appropriate Technology]] movements mentioned below, in fact appeared a few years ''before'' Illich wrote [[Tools for Conviviality]], and probably exercised significance influence on Illich's thinking.

In the years just before, during and after the second world war, emerging tendencies in scientific thought coalesced into a new field which [[Norbert Weiner]] called [[Cybernetics]]. This discipline formed at the crossroads of computer science, electrical engineering, biology and social science. [[Cybernetics]] exercised a major influence on the development of theories about society, information, the environment and the use of computers, and spawned derivative terms such as [[Cyberspace]] and [[Cybernaut]].

In the years just before, during and after the second world war, emerging tendencies in scientific thought coalesced into a new field which [[Norbert Weiner]] called [[Cybernetics]]. This discipline formed at the crossroads of computer science, electrical engineering, biology and social science. [[Cybernetics]] exercised a major influence on the development of theories about society, information, the environment and the use of computers, and spawned derivative terms such as [[Cyberspace]] and [[Cybernaut]].